Effects of Empagliflozin Combined with Anaerobic, Aerobic, and Endurance Swimming Protocols on Cardiac Structure and Electrophysiology in Healthy Rats
Abstract
Objective: Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, particularly empagliflozin, have attracted considerable attention because of their cardiovascular benefits beyond glycemic control. However, the interaction between empagliflozin and exercise-induced physiological cardiac remodeling in healthy individuals remains insufficiently understood. This study investigated the effects of different swimming exercise protocols (anaerobic, aerobic, and endurance), administered alone or in combination with empagliflozin, on cardiac structure and electrophysiology. Methods: Thirty-six male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to six groups (n = 6 per group): anaerobic (An), aerobic (Ae), endurance (En), and the corresponding exercise groups combined with empagliflozin (An + Empa, Ae + Empa, and En + Empa). Empagliflozin was administered by oral gavage at a dose of 15 mg/kg/day for 30 days. Transthoracic echocardiography, electrocardiography (ECG), and gastrocnemius electromyography were performed at baseline and at the end of the study to assess cardiac remodeling, heart rate, and neuromuscular function. The study was carried out over a 30-day intervention period following ethics committee approval on 24 July 2024. Results: No significant between-group differences were observed in echocardiographic parameters before the intervention. On day 30, significant differences were identified among the groups in interventricular septal thickness at end-diastole (IVSd) (p = 0.027),…
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