The Enkephalinergic Osteoblast
Abstract
BONES DEPEND ON CONTINUOUS cellular regulatory processes throughout all phases of their life. It starts in histogenesis when bones are formed by transformation of pre-existing connective tissue into bone tissue. Flat bones of the skull are formed by intramembranous ossification, the transformation of primitive connective tissue into bone. Long bones are formed by endochondral ossification, the replacement of cartilage by bone. Next, bones undergo growth and modeling, and finally they are continuously remodeled throughout life. Repair of bone injury includes events resembling the processes that occur in endochondral ossification during bone development. Cells of the osteoclastic and osteoblastic lineages are key players in performing these complex processes. These cells are mainly regulated on three levels: replication of undifferentiated cells; differentiation and recruitment of cells, and differentiated function of cells. Extensive studies revealed that the regulation of metabolic functions of bone cells is executed by hormones, carried in the blood to their target organ, the bone, as well as by local factors that are synthesized in the bone and act in a paracrine/autocrine manner. The best known such systemic hormones include parathyroid hormone (PTH), sex steroids, glucocorticoids, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3), and calcitonin, while the local factors include mediators such as cytokines, platelet-derived growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor and…
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