Impact of outdoor and nature-based interventions on self-efficacy among adolescents and young adults: a three-level meta-analysis
Abstract
Introduction: Self-efficacy plays a critical role in motivation, emotional regulation, and adaptive functioning, particularly during adolescence and young adulthood. Outdoor and nature-based interventions have been proposed as a promising approach to enhance self-efficacy. However, prior meta-analyses have been limited by the assumption of independent effect sizes, which may not adequately account for multiple outcomes reported within the same study. This study aimed to systematically evaluate the effects of outdoor and nature-based interventions on self-efficacy among adolescents and young adults using a three-level meta-analytic approach.
Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane Library, SPORTDiscus, and PsycArticles for studies published up to December 8, 2025. Standardized mean differences (Cohen's d) were calculated using post-intervention means and standard deviations from the intervention and comparison groups. A three-level random-effects meta-analysis was performed to account for statistical dependence among multiple effect sizes. Meta-regression analyses were conducted to examine the potential moderating effects of intervention duration and population type.
Results: Six independent studies comprising 10 effect sizes were included, involving 1,356 participants aged 12-24 years. The three-level meta-analysis demonstrated a significant positive effect of outdoor and nature-based interventions on self-efficacy (d…
How strong is the evidence?
Evidence Hub reads this as a meta-analysis, done in people. Its evidence level is 1 of 5 (Highest · pooled evidence). Pooled evidence from several studies sits at the top of the evidence pyramid. Reported size: 1,356 participants or records.
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