Effects of EEG neurofeedback and training interventions on golf putting performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Abstract
Background: Electroencephalography neurofeedback (EEG-NFT) is used to modulate brain function to enhance golf putting performance. However, the effectiveness of EEG-NFT and its relationship with non-EEG training interventions in improving putting performance remain unclear.
Methods: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) registration (CRD420251068586), this study systematically searched multiple databases up to 8 June 2025. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating EEG-NFT and other training interventions for golf putting were included. The meta-analyses employed random-effects models, with subgroup analyses conducted to examine moderators.
Results: A total of 12 RCTs involving 424 participants were included. The overall analysis revealed a significant positive effect on putting performance (standardized mean difference, SMD = 1.33; 95% CI: 0.36-2.29; p = 0.007), though with substantial heterogeneity (I2 = 94%). Subgroup analyses demonstrated that skill level significantly moderated the intervention effects (p = 0.0003), with novices showing the largest improvement (SMD = 2.10). Crucially, intervention efficacy was strongly dependent on both the anatomical specificity and frequency band targeting: central region-sensorimotor rhythm (Cz-SMR)-NFT demonstrated robust positive effects (SMD = 1.12, 95% CI: 0.59-1.66), while inhibitory…
How strong is the evidence?
Evidence Hub reads this as a meta-analysis, done in people. Its evidence level is 1 of 5 (Highest · pooled evidence). Pooled evidence from several studies sits at the top of the evidence pyramid. Reported size: 424 participants or records.
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