Carbon quantum dots for photocatalytic wastewater treatment: Mechanistic insights and economic feasibility
Abstract
Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) have emerged as versatile photocatalytic agents owing to their tunable band structures, abundant surface functionalities, and excellent electron-hole separation capacity. Despite numerous reports of high pollutant degradation efficiencies, progress toward real-world implementation remains fragmented. This systematic review, conducted under Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines which synthesizes 105 high-quality studies published between 2020 and 2025. Distinct from prior narrative reviews, this study focuses on linking synthesis strategies including hydrothermal, microwave-assisted, solvothermal, and biomass-derived routes with application outcomes across antibiotics, dyes, and phenolic pollutants. The analysis highlights the growing role of biomass precursors as sustainable alternatives to chemical feedstocks, while also identifying trade-offs in yield, doping control, and scalability. A techno-economic lens is introduced, comparing precursor costs and estimating treatment costs per cubic meter of wastewater. While 90% degradation efficiencies are frequently achieved, challenges remain in energy demand, long-term stability, and performance under complex wastewater matrices. This review consolidates the evidence base and proposes a roadmap for scalable and cost-effective CQDs-based photocatalysis, offering practical insights to bridge laboratory innovation with industrial application.
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